The Livelihood of Man (Plan, 1950): Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 13:14, 23 June 2020

Introduction

PART ONE. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

Section I. Critique of the marketing mind

Chapter 1. The economistic fallacy, in conceptual, institutional and cultural terms

(I) Equating the economy with its market form
- (a) Narrowing down the field of the economic to market phenomena
- (b) Extending market phenomena to cover all economic phenomena
(II) Its background in market economy and market society
- (a) Economy dominated by the market (market economy)
- (b) Society embedded in the market economy (market society)
(III) Market mentality
- (a) Distorted perspective in regard to the nature of man and society
  - (1) Utilitarian psychology of the individual
  - (2) Economic determinism in regard to collectivity
- (b) The economistic Weltanschauung
  - (1) Economic rationalism; The three meanings of ‘rational’
    - (aa) Introduction of the scarcity concept to all means-ends relationships
    - (bb) Application of the scientific value scale of tests to all means
    - (cc) Application of the utilitarian scale of preferences to all ends
  - (2) Egotism, based on an atomistic concept oh human society
    - (aa) Competition, as derive from an antagonistic concept of an atomistic society
    - (bb) survival of the fittest construed as the result of antagonistic competition
  - (1) Equilibrium concepts as forming part of the harmonistic approach to an atomistic society
  - (2) Political solipsism
  - (3) Abstract idealism: belief in institutionally disembodied ideals of freedom, justice, law, as obtaining under laissez-faire in a market society
- (c) Catallactic triad: trade, money, market as a logically inseparable whole

Chapter 2. Economics, the social sciences and common speech

(I) Economic theory: a theory of the market
(II) Economic history: its wholesale dependence on current economic concepts
- (a) Oikos controversy
- (b) Capitalism in Antiquity
- (c) Western singularity
(III) Anthropology: its residual dependence on economic concepts
(IV) Sociology: lack of integrating concepts in regard to the economic aspects of its various subjects
(V) Psychology: unconscious influence of utilitarian value scales
(VI) Epistemology: the formal economy of thought and concepts
(VII) Language: popular influence of the economistic notions

Section II. The two meanings of economics

Chapter 3. Substantive and formal meaning of economic

(I) The logic of rational action
(II) Economic analysis: its derivation form formal economics
(III) Basic elements of the substantive economy

Chapter 4. Economic motives

(I) Prestige motives
(II) Collective behavior
(III) Economic motives proper
- (a) To labor for pay, irrespective of the social elations involved
- (b) To make gain on exchange
- (c) To do anything primarily for fear of having otherwise to go without the necessities of life
(IV) Relative absence of economic motives proper in primitive society
- (a) No individual starvation
- (b) Work never done for payment alone
- (c) No gain made on exchange
- (d) Absence of an economic sphere as an integrative concept
- (e) The integrative function of non-economic wealth and treasure concepts
(V) The approval of self-interest
- Calvin
- Hobbes
- Spinoza
- Locke
- Mandeville
- Hume
- Bentham
- Spencer
- Sumner

Chapter 5. Economic institutions

(I) Status and contractus (Maine)
(II) Community and society (Tönnies)
(III) Verstehende Soziologie (Max Weber)
(IV) Embedded transactions (Malinowski)
(V) Determinism
- (a) Ecological: Ritter, Forde
- (b) Historical: Marx
- (c) Cultural: M. Mead

Chapter 6. Debt and obligation

Chapter 7. Forms of integration and supporting structure patterns

(I) Reciprocity
(II) Redistribution
(III) Exchange
(IV) Dominant and subordinate forms of integration

Chapter 8. Operational devices

(I) Census, accountancy and public administration
(II) Weights and measures
(III) Operational uses of money
(IV) Auction
(V) Devices of social organization

Chapter 9. Equivalencies

(I) Their function, in general
- (a) The establishment of the equivalency in principle
- (b) The ascertaining of the equivalence in practice
(II) Equivalencies in foreign trade
- (a) Impracticability under archaic conditions of transactions involving regular long-distance carrying, unless treaty relations previously established
- (b) Aim, in practice, to establish 1:1 equivalencies extending the principle if necessary to ‘rates’ or ‘proportions’ of trade
  - (1) Trade-good units organized as a ‘sorting’ or ‘package’
  - (2) ‘One to one’ trade terms altered to ‘two to one’, etc.

Chapter 10. Transactions and dispositions

(I) Transactions in regard to persons and in regard to goods
(II) Transactional and dispositional trading

Chapter 11. The economic role of justice, law and freedom

(I) The primitive taboo on transactions in regard to food
(II) The lifting of the taboo
- (a) In the agora of peasant type societies
- (b) Under proclaimed equivalencies in the irrigational empires

Section III. The Catallactic Triad: Trade, Money, Market

Chapter 12. Traders and trade

(I) Personnel
- (a) Factor and Mercator: status motive and profit motives
- (b) Upper, lower and ‘middle’ class: standards of life
  - (1) Upper range: King’s trade
    - (i) Tribal society
    - (ii) Acropolitan state (Burgenkoenigtum)
    - (iii) Pharaonic and temple trade
- (bb) Prince’s and warrior’s trade
  - Archai upper class
  - Khoresm (pre-arabic mulúk, 7th century AD)
  - Kievan boyers (10th century to 13th century)
  - Mexico (‘the royal family and the other merchants’, 16th century AD)
  - Syrian emirs (Eldred and Tavernier, 16th and 17th centuries)
  - Dahoman caboceers (18th century)
- (cc) Burgess merchant
  - (i) Patriciate of Western Europe
  - (ii) Gild merchant of Novgorod
  - (2) Lower range
    - (aa) Castes and gilds of carriers and bazaar craftsmen in irriational empires
    - (bb) Metic in the Eastern Mediterranean polis
    - (cc) Local retailer of food and household articles on the agora (kapoloi)
  - (3) ‘Middle’ range
    - (aa) Byzantine empire (post-Roman non-feudal area)
    - (bb) Late Hellenism and Islam (from West Africa to India)
    - (cc) Nineteenth-century Western European ‘commercial classes’
- (c) Tamkar, metic nd foreigner: types of traders in the archaic world
  - (1) Tamkar: tarder by ststus, acting as a favtor
    - (aa) Carrying
    - (bb) Negociating
    - (cc) Related functons
      - (i) Brokerage
      - (ii) Auctioneering
      - (iii) Trusteeship
        Keeper of safe deposite
        
        Agent of payments
        
        Making official loans and advances
        
        Public attorney
  - (2) Metic (resident alien)
    - (aa) Proselyte natives (Israel)
    - (bb) Floating alien population of D.P.’s; fragments of dismembered peoples; political refugees; exiles; fugitive criminals; escaped slaves; discharged mercenaries
    - (cc) Partly assimilated to metics
      - Freedmen (Rome)
      - Slaves (paying apophora)
    - (dd) Occupations of metic traders
      - Small trader
      - Skipper
      - Money changer and tester
      - Money lender
  - (3) Foreigners: alien traders under king’s protection
    - (aa) Sources
      - Trading peoples proper
      - Periodically trader peoples
    - (bb) Types
      - Traveller: transient
      - Colonist
      - King’s factor
- (d) Trading peoples
  - (1) Trading peoples proper (all members directly or indirectly participating)
    - (aa) Sea
      - Phoenicians
      - Rhodians
      - Western Vikings
    - (bb) Desert
      - Beduin
      - Tuareg
    - (cc) River
      - Eastern Vikings
      - Kede (of the Niger)
  - (2) Periodically trading peoples
    - Haoussa, Duala, Mandingo, etc.
    - Malayan
  - (3) Dislocated peoples
    - Armenians
    - Jews
    - ‘Greeks’
(III) Goods
- (a) Treasure
  - (1) Moventia: slaves and cattle
  - (2) Booty: moventia plus precious metals and precious stones, eventually ivory and clothes
- (b) Public requirements
  - (1) Staples: corn, oil, wine, died fish (also wool)
  - (2) Military requirements
  - (aa) Navy: timber, tar and hemp
    - (bb) Army: copper, tin, lead, iron
    - (cc) Luxuries (rulins class interest)
      - (1) Spices
      - (2) Cosmetics
      - (3) Incense
      - (4) Rare woods
- (d) Bulky articles (hauling expeditions)
  - (1) Stones
  - (2) Timber
(III) Transportation
- (a) routes
- (b) Means of transport
- (c) Organization
(IV) Two-sidedness
- (a) External trade
  - (1) Gift trade
  - (2) Administrated or treaty trade
  - (3) Market trade
- (b) ‘Internal’ trade
  - (1) Usually ‘external’ to some smaller social unit, e.g. village
  - (2) Subsequently ‘internalized’ through incorporation into a larger unit
  - (3) Ecological differences leading to interprovincial trade
  - (4) Fragmentation of empires or the paralysis of their central redistributive system
  - (5) Traject of foreign trade before it can reach the center from the boundary
    - First proposition: lines of external and of internal development of trade are different

Chapter 13. Money objects and money uses

(I) Catallactic and institutional definition
(II) The money uses of quantifiable objects
- (a) Primitive money and modern money
  - (1) Special purpose money
  - (2) All purpose money
- (b) Money uses
  - (1) Payment
  - (2) Standard
  - (3) Hoarding
  - (4) Exchange
- (c) Ideal units
- (d) Operational use of money objects
(III) Institutional origins of money uses
- (a) Payment
  - (1) In unstratified primitive society, as a rule, payments are made in connection with the institutions of bride price, blood money and fines
  - (2) In stratified, and especially in archaic society, institutions of bride price, blood money and fines
- (b) Standard or accountancy use of money is found in connection with
  - (1) Complex barter – i.e., different articles being summed up on both sides;
  - (2) The administration of staples (staple-finance)
- (c) Hoarding of wealth may serve the purpose of
  - (1) Accumulating treasure
  - (2) Providing against future dearth
  - (3) Disposal over military ad labor forces byproviding subsistence in kind
- (d) Exchange develops as a rule not from random barter acts of individuals, but in connection with organized trade and markets
  - Second proposition: institutional elements of money have separate and independent origins

Chapter 14. Markets elements and markets

(I) Catallactic and institutional definition of markets
(II) Origin of markets
- (a) External an internal markets
  - (1) Out of foreign trade
  - (2) Out of food distribution
- (b) Precursors of markets
  - (1) Gates
  - (2) Bazaar
  - (3) Port of trade
(III) Institutional features of markets
- (a) Visible and invisible markets
  - (1) Visible markets
    - (aa) Open markets
    - (bb) Diffuse markets
    - (cc) Bazaars
  - (2) Invisible markets
- (b) Price-making and non price-making markets
- (c) One-price markets and non one-price markets
  - Third proposition: Integration of economic elements achieved in non-market economics through custom, law or administrative action under the principle of reciprocity or redistribution

PART TWO. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Section I. From tribal to archaic society

Chapter 15. Status transactions and economic transactions

(I) Tribal society: transactions regarding the place of persons in society with only indirect economic effects; avoidance of transactions in regard to land, food and labour
(II) Archaic society: emergence of primarily economic transactions in regard to land, food and labour
(III) Tribal solidarity and tribal leadership carried over into archaic society
- (a) Peasant type city states
  - (1) Strong emotional ties (Fustel de Coulanges)
  - (2) Weakening of the avoidance of gainful transactions (agora)
    - Result: minute territorial range; intense communal feeling; no dependent labour; permanent class struggle
- (b) Irrigational empires
  - (1) Theocratic kingship and dependent labour
  - (2) Continued avoidance of food transactions by way of
    - (aa) Storage cum redistribution
    - (bb) Statutory equivalencies which keep food transactions free from the notion of gain

Chapter 16. Exchange of equivalents

(I) Operational definition of equivalency
(II) The role of equivalencies under different forms of integration
- (a) Reciprocity: conventional countergifts
- (b) Redistribution: equivalents for payments of taxes or for rations received
- (c) Exchange: equivalents for purposes of barter or exchange
(III) The range of equivalencies
- (a) Property in, or use of,
  - (1) Slaves and cattle
  - (2) Land and houses
  - (3) Money and goods
- (b) Hire of labour
(IV) Establishment of equivalencies by
- (a) Custom and tradition
  - ‘Utu’ of the Tikopia
- (b) Statute
  - Laws of Eshnunne, Hammurabi’s Code Proclamation
- (c) Proclamation
  - Markets in Central Sudan
(V) Exchange of equivalencies, especially of services
- (a) Ditennutu (Nuzi, 14th century B.C.)
- (b) The prohibition of interest taking (Mishna, 3rd century B.D.)
(VI) The ‘just price’ as an equivalency

Chapter 17. Indentured labor, be’uletum and commenda

(I) The embeddedness of labour institutions in the texture of society
(II) Debt bondage not resulting from ‘credit transactions’ but rather a form of indentured service
(III) The be’ulatum, a combination of indentured service with trading activities in a marketless economy
(IV) The development of price-making markets introduces the element of risk and thereby transforms the be’ulatum into the commenda, a form of business association

Chapter 18. Interest and default

Chapter 19. The archaic economic institutions

Section II. Archaic traders

Chapter 20. The tamkar

(I) Sumeria
- (a) Sociological background
- (b) Flood control: dominant ecological factor
- (c) Redistribution of land and labour
- (d) Storage economy
- (e) Household
- (f) Foreign trade (lead, stone, timber)
- (g) Expeditionary trade
(II) Early Assyria (‘Cappadocia’) – Keniš on the Halys
- (a) Trade settlement of 3rd millennium Assur
- (b) Recent finds (1948)
- (c) Archaic ‘factory’
- (d) Methods of trading and trade organization
- (e) Be’ulatum
- (f) ‘Tamkar’ – higher stage
- (g) Separation of
  - (1) Trade and carrying
  - (2) Riskless dispositions and risk-involving transactions
  - (3) Non-gainful (official) business and gainful business
(III) Ugarit
- (a) International highly develop port of trade, politically virtually independent, multilingual
- (b) Port of trade organization
  - (1) Documentation
  - (2) Equivalencies
- (c) Heirs to Kanis?
(IV) Eshnunna
- (a) Tamkar and broket (Art. 45)
- (b) Equivalencies (Art 2.)
- (c) Staples (qualities)
- (d) Service equivalents
- (e) Non-commercial character of transactions
(V) Hammurabi’s Babylonia

(**a) Temple economy)

- (b) Palace economy) their relations
- (c) Tamkar by status
- (d) Commenda
- (e) Death penalty, all-round
(VI) Nuzi (Arrapha), Kassite period
- (a) Feudal period
- (b) Merchants’ villages
- (c) Foreign traders
- (d) Market place? Gate!
(VII) Tell-el-Amarna period
- (a) Royal gift trade (degenerating)
- (b) Elements of international law
(VIII) Syria
- Wenamon of Byblos
(IX) Israel
- (a) Davidic and Salomic Israel: Hinterland of Tyrian port of trade and trading people
- (b) King’s oikos plus tamkar trade
- (c) Tribute collected for export
- (d) Treaty trade including public works and land sale (Hiram)
(X) Neo-Babylonia
- (a) Surprising continuity of institutional set-up
- (b) Assyrian, Chaldeen, Persian regimes leave trading system unaffected
- (c) No essential change in commercial practices
- (d) Resistance to Hellenic influence (currency, markets)
- (e) Banking (misunderstanding)
- (f) Agricultural ‘capitalism’
(XI) Persia
- (a) Military routes
- (b) Herodotus: no market places
- (c) Xenophon’s ideals
- (d) Postal services
- (e) Tamkar in eclipse?
- (f) No money
- (g) No credit
(XII) Seleucids
- (a) No change in transactions
- (b) Poleis flourishing
- (c) Contrast ofpoleis and chora
- (d) Prince’s trade revived

Chapter 21. Metic population

(I) Eastern Mediterranean
- (a) Italiots (freedmen) – slaves (apophora)
- (b) Hellenism
(II) Asia
- (a) Armenians
- (b) Bunnian caste
- (c) Levantines
(III) Africa
- (a) Central Sudan
- (b) West Africa
(IV) Early medieval merchants

Chapter 22. Foreign population

(I) Kassite: traders carry foreign names
(II) Nuzi: traders carry foreign names
(III) Ugarit
(IV) Homeric Greece: Phoenicians
(V) Israel: Tyre
(VI) Oriental world
- (a) 8th century B.C. Naukratis; Miletians, etc.
- (b) 5th century B.C. Persia: Lydians
- (c) 16th century .D. Persia; Bunnyans, Armenians

Section III. Types of trade

Chapter 23. Gift trade
- (I) Risk limited to one (unrequited) instalment
- (II) Political interest often primary
- (III) International character of trade
- (IV) Elastic terms

Chapter 24. Administrated and treaty trade

(I) Primitive society - all trade regulated, ceremonialized
- (a) Place of meeting
- (b) Goods to be exchanged
- (c) Behavior of partners
- (d) Safeguards against haggling
- (e) Operational devices to facilitate physical exchange
- (f) Policing: safety of life and limb
- (g) Peace of the meeting
(II) Archaic society (involving political boundaries, officials, permission to penetrate into the interior)
- (a) Port of trade (emporium)
- (b) Definite goods the subject of organized trade
- (c) Diplomatic embassy, official representation
- (d) Higgling-haggling contrary to the interest of both parties, relegated to pre-treaty phase
- (e) Portage, uncading
- (f) Customs, tolls, port dues, etc.
- (g) Brokerage: guarantee of quality, of solvency, etc.
- (h) Permanency of establishment
- (i) Equivalencies stabilized
- (j) ‘Profits’ agreed

Chapter 25. Market trade

Origins of market trade

(a) Dissolution of empires and feding-out of trade-goods
(b) Trade in non-staples
(c) Institutional adjustment frequent and consistent
(d) Interlopers, freebooters, smugglers
(e) Emergency measure
(f) ‘Private’ trade alongside of administrated trade legitimized (‘Cappadocians’, Armanians)
(g) Subsidiary employment of auctioning; sale of revenue, etc. as in tax farming
(h) Local markets as organs of enforcement of ‘single price’

Section IV. The four uses of money objects

Chapter 26. Primitive money uses

(I) Origins of

(a) Payment (internal) (b) Standard (c) Hoarding (d) Exchange (external)

(II) Origins of money objects

(a) Cattle, see and beads (b) Objects of trade

(III) Interethnic currencies

(a) Gold dust (b) Cowrie

Chapter 27. Archaic monetary systems

(I) Archaic economic institutions
- (a) Administrated stores
- (b) Proclaimed equivalencies
- (c) Administrated foreign trade
- (d) Taxes and rents paid
- (e) Separating of external and internal economy
- (f) Army finance
- (g) Balancing of royal household
(II) Linking of various money uses
- (a) Barter
- (b) Staple finance
- (c) Equivalencies
- (d) Money functions of treasure
(III) Ideal units
- (a) External trade
- (b) Internal sources
(IV) Operational uses of monetary objects
- (a) Elite circulation
- (b) Stabilization of social strata
(V) Coined money
- (a) For internal use only (local market)
- (b) For external use only (foreign market)

Section V. Market elements

Chapter 28. Precursors of the market ‘gates’, bazaars and ports of trade

(I) Gates: the market’s analogon in redistributive economies
(II) Presence of stocks; supply crowds and demand crowds, or both
- (1) Functioning as political agora: public court, ‘threshing floor’
- (2) Functioning as economic agora: storage of staples: ‘dimtu’ (?)
  - Early Assyria
  - Hammurabi’s Babylonia
  - Nuzi
  - Palestine (Israel, Judah)
  - Mishna
  - Africa
(II) Bazaar: supplementary to the gates
- Development of bazaar
- (1) Sociology of crafts
- (2) Treaty bazaar
- (3) Reasons of permanency
(III) Ports of trade
- (a) History
  - (1) Babylonia (riverain trade)
  - (2) Knossos (maritime)
  - (3) Egypt
  - (4) Tyre (insular and peninsular emporia)
  - (5) ‘Cappadoccia’ (colonial port of trade)
  - (6) Mediterranean emporia
  - (7) Asiatic empires (maritime, caravan)
  - (8) European empires (overseas)
- (b) Causes of decay
  - (1) Political factors: decay of empires
  - (2) Economic factors
    - (aa) Goods
      - Specific goods
      - Manufactured
    - (bb) Traders
      - ‘Commercial classes’
      - Penetration of foreign trade into domestic markets
      - Breakdown of wholesale trade

Chapter 29. Alternating dominance and recession of markets

(I) Bird’s eye view of the history of markets
- (a) Regular meetings of supply and demand crowds occur purely tribal conditions especially in stratified primitive society
  - Bush markets
  - District markets
- (b) Almost complete absence of markets over millennia in the flourishing irrigational empire of Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley
  - No markets un ‘Cappadocia’
  - No markets in Babylon
  - Bazaars in Assur, Samaria, Damascus
  - Persian attitude (Herodotus)
- (c) Emergence of markets in the peasant type city states of Greece and Rome
  - Odyssey
  - Hesiod
  - Forum Romanum
- (d) Recession of markets in the economy of the Late Roman Empire
  - Annona
  - Navioularii
- (e) Reappearance of markets in the High Middle Ages. Rise of urban markets and of national markets
  - Traders: ‘Continental metics’
  - Islamitic influence
  - Markets for food, subsequently for manufactures
  - Fairs: temporary ports of trade
  - Staples: permanent artificial ports of trade
  - Separation of long distance and of local trade
  - Mercantilism: urban regulations applied nationally
- (f) Rise to world dominance in the nineteenth century
  - International market for grain, freight, insurance, currencies, money, capital
- (g) Breakdown on a world scale in the second quarter of the twentieth century
  - Restoration of national systems (currencies, planning, etc.) with increased regulation
(II) Tentative propositions
- (a) Market elements involving regular trade meetings make their appearance very early, without, however, giving rise to price-making markets;
- (b) Price-marking or near price-making markets develop relatively late and their presence tends to influence the whole way of life of the community
- (c) The repeatedly observed recession of markets and market elements in society appears to be an accompaniment, if not a direct result, of the political unit’s territorial expansion with which the market organization can not keep pace

PART THREE. ASPECTS OF LIVELIHOOD IN GREECE, ISRAEL AND DAHOMEY

Section I. From Hesiod to the establishment of an Eastern Mediterranean corn market

Chapter 30. Reciprocity and redistribution in archaic Greece

(I) The Thucydean archaelogy
- (a) Origin of the Hellenes
- (b) Original settlement
- (c) Coastal settlements
(II) Reciprocity
- (a) Tribal elements
  - (1) Dowry, bride price, etc.
  - (2) Gift friends
- (b) External trade
  - (1) Gift trade
  - (2) Piracy
  - (3) Chieftain’s trade
- (c) Elite circulation ant the role of treasure
  - (1) Sources of treasure
  - (2) Elite circulation
  - (3) Translation of treasure into power
    - (aa) Command over men and resources
    - (bb) Taxation
(III) Redistribution
- (a) Land
- (b) Booty
- (c) Sacrificial meals
- (d) Metals: gold and silver
- (e) Corn
- (f) Stores
(IV) Colonisation

Chapter 31. The Hesiodic age

(I) Kinship tie replaced by neighborhood
- (a) Treasure: establishment of wealthy and powerful families, outside of the clan tie
- (b) Princes: local kings, crooked judgments, unprotected freemen
- (c) Reciprocity made relative to
  - (1) Village group (neighbour)
  - (2) Personal relationship
  - (3) Individual behaviour
- (d) Villate marriage
- (e) Passing of blood feud (Draconian legislation)
(II) Individualization
- (a) Personality and judgment
- (b) Aloneness of man
- (c) Work
  - (1) Thrift
  - (2) Don’t ‘put off’ things
  - (3) Work is honourable
- (d) Competition and strife
- (e) Hunger
  - (1) Individual starvation
  - (2) Fear of lonely
  - (3) Borrowing: begging
  - (4) Concern fot the future
(III) Property
(IV) Debt
- (a) Generally present
- (b) No transactional origin
- (c) No loaning, interest, usury
(V) Trade
- (a) Profession of despair
- (b) No money mentioned
- (c) No market place: o politics
- (d) Anti-commercial attitude
  - (1) Don’t take risk
  - (2) Don’t speculate
  - (3) Self-sufficiency
- (e) Anti-innovation
  - (1) Traditional
  - (2) Urban

Chapter 32. Solon

(I) The Attic background
- (a) Migration
- (b) Settlement
- (c) Crop yield
- (d) In the backwater of history
- (e) Tradition of autochthony, hence more tribal elements
- (f) Peasant economy of Hesiodic type
  - (1) Thurnwald: loosening of the clan tie a general phenomenon
  - (2) Imminence of famine and debt in Hesiod
(II) The Solonic crisis
- Economic elements
- Land in ‘the hands of a few’
  - (aa) Territorial rule
  - (bb) Public and private debt
  - (cc) Serfdom
  - (dd) Debt bondage
- (2) Food problem
  - (aa) Inadequacy of soil
  - (bb) Probable export of corn by large landowners
- (3) Passive trade
- (b) Social elements
  - (1) The people ‘had no part nor share in anything’
  - (2) Serfdom was ‘the bitterest part’
- (c) Political elements
  - (1) Oligarchical constitution
  - (2) Formal vs. actual rights of the people
- (d) Class war the result
(III) The Solonic solution: successful elements
- (a) Elimination of immediate crisis
  - (1) Simultaneous cancellation of public and private debts and prohibition of debt bondage
  - (2) Embargo on corn export
- (b) Partial democratization, avoiding permanent oligarchy
  - (1) Class division by wealth rather than birth
  - (2) Admission of thetes to assembly and jury
  - (3) Right of appeal to law courts
  - (4) Right of redress
- (c) Reform of weights and measures and coinage
- (d) Food problem
  - (1) Embargo on corn exports
  - (2) Encouragement of olive and vine planting, control of planting, etc.
  - (3) Areopagus given supervision of ‘the sources of supply of necessities’
  - (4) Compulsory artisanship
(IV) Inadequacies of the Solonic solution
- (a) Failure to establish the central political force needed to make market elements effective as integrating forces
  - (1) No taxes or tithes; no means of collecting them
  - (2) No army or police
  - (3) No government mint: Eupatrid money
  - (4) No sources of credit for peasantry
    - (aa) Large capital required to convert to olive planting
    - (bb) Prohibition of debt slavery
- (b) Foreign trade appears to have remained purely passive
- (c) Continued conflict between formal and actual rights of the people
  - (1) Aeropagus remained as ‘guardian of the Constitution’: it was a Eupatrid body
  - (2) Renewed strife after four years
  - (3) Reversion to old social divisions (dominance by Eupatrids) after twenty years
(V) The resolution of the crisis: tyrannis and democracy
- - (a) Origin of the tyrannis
    - (1) Continual disorder
    - (2) Territorial rule
    - (3) Treasure and coinage
    - (4) Armed guards and mercernaires
  - (b) The Pisistratidian solution: establishment of the necessary central political power
    - (1) Constitutional measures
    - (2) Tithe – Pisistratus’ oikos
    - (3) Loans to peasantry
    - (4) Improved administration of justice
    - (5) Police; army and navy
    - (6) Foreign trade
    - (7) Money and coinage
    - (8) Popular religion
    - (9) Public buildings
  - (c) The Cleisthenian constitution: the final elimination of tribal elements from political life, thus establishing the absolute power of the polis
    - (1) Extension of citizenship
    - (2) Franchise on new basis, cutting across all old tribal and territorial lines
      - (aa) Demos
      - (bb) Trittus
      - (cc) Ten new tribes

Chapter 33. The economy of the polis

(I) The pwoer of the polis
- (a) The institional embodiement of law and justice
  - (1) Aristotle: civilization means polis
  - (2) Self-enforcing character of law: Rostovzteff Socrates (Cirto)
- (b) The discipline of the polis
(II) The integrative role of redistribution
- (a) Tribal traiditons: Themiscles, Cimon
- (b) Citizens’ livelihood
  - (1) Redistribution of land and booty
  - (2) Empire as a source of livelihood
    - (aa) Aristides
    - (bb) Periclean public works
    - (cc) The dioblia
    - (dd) Xenophon’s Poroi
- (c) The oikos: Cimon and Pericles
(III) Internal-external polarity is at the root of the functioning of trade, money and market
- (a) Trade
  - (1) Personnel
    - (aa) Internal
      - Citizens only (metix tax)
      - Kapelos – small huckster, caterer
    - (bb) External
      - Metics
      - Transient foreigners
      - No middlemn
      - Attitude to trade
  - (2) Goods
    - (aa) Internal
      - retail trade
      - Foodstuffs
    - (bb) External
      - Saves, corn, oil, wine, luxuries
- (b) Market elemenys
  - (1) Location
    - (aa) Internal
      - The agora
      - Physical boundaries: Athens, Piraeus
      - Time boundary
      - Stalls
      - Moving the agora (armies and markets)
    - (bb) External
      - Emporium: city gate (Aristophanes)
      - Diegma
      - Emporium has its own agora
      - Aristotle: problem of placing the emporium
  - (2) Terms of trade regulation
    - (aa) Internal
      - Market offcials
      - Corn officials
      - Price control
      - Quality control
      - Market spies (Aristophanes)
      - Cheap or free grain
    - (bb) External
      - Corn inspectors
      - 2% duty
      - Prices
- (c) Money and coinage
  - (aa) Internal
    - Small coins – silver, copper, bronze, alloys
    - Token coinage
    - Alteration of value (Oeconomica II)
    - Restriking and countermaking
  - (bb) External
    - Large coins – gold
    - Bullion value
    - Uses (Oeconomica II)
- (d) Contemporary opinion: despite their genius for abstract speculation neither Aristotle nor Plato ever thought of agora and emporium of being similar
  - (1) Agora: market trade; subsistence of population
  - (2) Emporium: source of profit; ‘outside the city’; regulate who shall have traffic with whom
(IV) Internal aspects of the polis
- (a) Plan and market: the mutual relations between, market elements and redistribution (Oeconomica II)
  - (1) Market elements made effective by redistribution action
  - (2) Redistributive system made effective by market elements
  - (3) The discipline of the agora: transformation of markets into redistributive devices
- (b) Banking: market elements are made more effective through the banking functions of deposit and payment
- (c) Privatization, leasing, and contracting
  - (1) Rostovzteff thesis
  - (2) Athenian budget
  - (3) Byzantium
(V) External aspects of the polis
- (a) External trade: “Greek-speaking” trade
  - (1) Types of trade
  - (2) Types of trader
    - (aa) Bosphoran princes, Egyptian kings
    - (bb) The metic
- (b) Food supply and the grain trae
  - (1) Supply
    - (aa) dependance on imports
    - (bb) Food supply as public policy
    - (cc) Sources of supply and trade routes
  - (2) The port of trade (emporium)
    - (aa) Price
    - (bb) Demand
    - (cc) regulation
- (c) Banking activities (changing and testing, deposit, payment) facilitate linking of trade with market elements.

Chapter 34. Cleomenes of Naukratis

(I) The immediate background
- (a) Alexander’s conquest of Egypt
- (b) Cleomenes of Naukratis: identity and roles
  - (1) In cahrge of the revenues of Egypt: Arrian, Curtius Rufus
  - (2) Satrap of Egypt: Pausanias, Arrian; Tarn, Ehenberg
  - (3) Constitution of Alexandria; Justin, Ps. Callisthenes, Oeconomica II
- (c) The great famine of 331-324 B.C.
  - (1) The fact of the famine: Demosthenes; Stele dei cereali, etc. Rostovtzeff
    - (aa) Import crisis, not cop failure (“wheat scarcity”)
    - (bb) Problem of dating
    - (cc) Extent of the famine: Greece, Egypt
  - (2) Immediate causes
    - (aa) Loss of Bosphoran supply
    - (bb) Breakdown of Athenian control of grain trade
  - (3) Relief measures
    - (aa) The sitonia
    - (bb) Donations of grain
(II) Establishing the market
- (a) Procedure within Egypt
  - (1) Export embargo on corn
  - (2) Government export monopoly
    - (aa) Elimination of middlemen
    - (bb) Price fixing
  - (3) Lifting the export embargo
    - (aa) 32 drachmae price
    - (bb) Participation by private individuals
- (b) Organization of the market
  - (1) Centered at Rhodes: grain transshipped there
    - (aa) Agents in Egypt
    - (bb) Super cargoes
    - (cc) Agents in Greek ports
  - (2) Organization of communications
    - (aa) Rhodian agents kept informed of prices movements in the Greek ports
    - (bb) Grain transshipped from Rhodes in accordance with price movements
    - (cc) Cf. the general importance of communications in market development: Mantoux, Sombart
(III) Results: a price-making market, but under strict administrative control
- (a) Effects on the Greek cities
  - (1) Rationalization of supply: a great advance
  - (2) Stabilization of price
  - (3) Functional dependence on Cleomenes’ organization: the movement of goods in accordance with price ratios resulted from administrative decisions, not “apontaneous” action of private merchants
- (b) Effects on Egypt
  - (1) Elimination of the Greek middleman
  - (2) Egyptian farmers benefited
  - (3) Egyptian consumers benefited
  - (4) Treasury profits: ref. 8000 talents (diodorus)
  - (5) Analogous organizations:
    - (aa) Dahoman export monopoly in slaves
    - (bb) Contemporary British dual pricing for coal and steel
(IV) The probable reasons for establishing the market
- (a) Alexandria as the emporium of the eastern Mediterranean
- (b) Alexander’s attempt to integrate the polis ant the chora
- (c) Ptolemaic rationalization of Egyptian rule
  - Use and extension of market elements to make the redistributive system more effective. – Cf. Johnson & West and others on top level of Ptolemaic rule
- (d) Revenue: 8000 talents profit
(V) The Athenian reaction
- (a) Recognition of the threat to Athenian security
  - Violent hate of Cleomenes
- (b) The response: an attempt to develop new sources of grain in the west, out of the range of Alexander’s power
  - (1) Colony of Hadria, 325/4 B.C.: “in order that for all time the people may have a market and a source of corn supply of their own...” (SIG 305)
  - (2) Special naval force to convoy Western grain
  - Appendix: A reappraisal of Cleomenes’ place in Hellenic history
    - (a) The need for a reappraisal:
      - (1) His achievements hardly known or recognized
        Exceptions: Rostovzteff, Wilcken
      - (2) His evil reputation
        (aa) Unjustified
        
        (bb) Irrelevant for the appraisal of his achievements
- (b) A critique of the case against Cleomenes
  - (1) Alexander’s alleged letter as a forgery: Tarn, Mahaffy
    - (bb) Origin of forgery: political attack on Cleomenes by Ptolemy Soter (Diodorus, Pausanias)
    - (cc) Relationship between Alexander and Cleomenes indicated by fact that Cleomenes was one of seven men present at Alexander’s deathbed, and one of the three men who interceded with the gods in his behalf. (Arrian)
  - (2) The grain-export monopoly
    - (aa) No-personal profit: gains accrued to the treasury
    - (bb) Cf. III above for effects on Greece and Egypt
  - (3) Minor Œconomica II incidents
    - (aa) Relations with priests and temples: cf. Wilcken’s comparison with Stele of Naukratis
    - (bb) Bribe offered by Canopus: cf. Gronigen, Mahaffy
    - (cc) Tricking his mercernaries
- (c) Cleomene’s achievements
  - (1) Establishment of the Mediterranean grain market
  - (2) Brilliant administration of Egypt
    - (aa) Financial genius: ref. 8000 talents
    - (bb) Probable anticipation of the main elements of Ptolemaic rule: cf. Rostovsteff, Wilcken, Ehrenberg
  - (3) Construction of Alexandria
    - (aa) His role in it: Œconomica II, Justin, etc.
    - (bb) Importance of Alexandria
  - (4) Confirmation of this view: presence at A.’s deathbed

Chapter 35. The capitalistic features in antiquity

Section II. Palace economy and market elements in ancient Israel

Chapter 36. David’s and Solomon’s oikos

Chapter 37. Tribal Israel and the redistributive monarchy

Chapter 38. Temple economies from Samuel to Nehemiah

Chapter 39. Trade, money and market elements in ancient Israel

Section III. Trade, money and markets in the Negro Kingdom of Dahomey

Chapter 40. Geography, history and sociology of the Upper Guinee Coast

(I) The emergence of the kingdom: brief history of its rise and fall
(II) The background: the region – geographical and historical features
(III) Significance of Dahomey as an isolated empire – native, pagan, inland
(IV) Some treatment of basic social organization; settlement; technology and subsistance

Chapter 41. The redistributive economy

(I) General characterization of the economy
- (a) Dominant form of integration: redistribution
- (b) Channels
  - (1) Political system
  - (2) Basic social organization
  - (3) Associations
(II) The scope of redistribution
- (a) Trade; money; markets
- (b) Productions; labor; land
- (c) The fiscal system: taxation, disbursements, etc.
(III) Organs
- (a) Political: Royal oikos; army; officials
- (b) Other
  - (1) Lineage groups
  - (2) Associations: gilds, religious bodies, work groups, etc.
(IV) Mechanics
- (a) Administration
- (b) Rules of law
- (c) Operational devices
- (d) Dual organization: points of contact with the economy

Chapter 42. Trade and traders

(I) Forms of trade
- (a) Foreign trade
- (b) Domestic trade
(II) Polarity of foreign trade and domestic trade demonstrated with respect to
- (a) Types of goods
- (b) Personnel
- (c) Transportation
- (d) Mode of acquisition
- (e) Place of trade
- (f) Regulations
- (g) Types of uses of money
- (h) Motivations
(III) Slave trade
- (a) Goods
- (b) Personnel: traders by status
- (c) Place of trade
- (d) Conduct and regulation of the trade
(IV) Market trade
- (a) Goods: provisions and utility wares – no prestige goods
- (b) Personnel: women carriers
- (c) Regulation
- (d) Money: cowris
(V) Limitations of the spread of trade
- (a) Distributive organization for foreign trade goods
- (b) Local market trade inherently limited by:
  - (1) Type of goods – bulky, perishable
  - (2) Carrying – women go on foot, goods carried on head
  - (3) ‘Trade routes’ – not variable
  - (4) Selling permitted only in market places (‘open market’)
(VI) Trading interest
- (a) A political interest
- (b) Articulation of the trading interest – sharing between king and officials
- (c) Non-competitive character of trade: regional monopolies, etc.
- (d) Institutionalized motivations

Chapter 43. Markets

(I) The role of the market in Dahoman life
- (a) A center for social life – ritual observances
- (b) Provisioning of the population
  - (1) Basic social dichotomy: market serves the people, redistribution serves the palace
  - (2) Prominence of perishables and cooked food in local markets
  - (3) Roadside hosteling for travelers
  - (4) Feeding of transients in Whydah
- (c) Disposal of household surplus
- (d) Division of labor and economic specialization
  - (1) Market provides livelihood for professional craft workers
  - (2) Market linked with basic division of labor between the sexes
- (e) Monetarization of status revenue
  - (1) Grant of resale privilege in local markets permits foreign trade goods to be converted into money
  - (2) Market linked with basic division of labor between the sexes
- (f) Minor circulations: disposal or rations, gifts, etc.
  - (1) Palace women selling ‘from their hoards’
  - (2) Priests selling offerings received at shrines
  - (3) Women slaves from royal plantations allowed to sell and buy in local markets
- (g) Distribution of purchasing power – market makes possible:
  - (1) Purchase of necessaries with money
  - (2) Payment of taxes and other obligations in money
  - (3) Individuation of the proceeds of joint work
  - (4) Implementation of individual preferences
  - (5) Hoarding of currency
(II) Structure and mechanisms of non-price making markets
- (a) Establishment and supervision of markets
  - (1) Location
  - (2) Entry
  - (3) Policing
  - (4) Direct supervision of sales of certain items
  - (5) Market arrangement: separate place for each type of product
  - (6) Collection of taxes on items sold - probably to facilitate supervision as well as collect revenue
- (b) Price making
  - (1) Retail prices
  - (2) Wholesale prices
  - (3) The retail span
- (c) Balancing of supply and demand, by redistributive action
  - (1) Redistribution action from the center with respect to resource allocation
  - (2) Restricted character of demand
  - (3) Adjustment of stock by habituation
  - (4) Effect of gild regulations on supply
  - (5) Price changes
  - (6) Other possibilities – sweeping the market, etc.
- (d) Supply of purchasing power
  - (a) Institutional pricing: local markets insulated against direct impact of price movements from outside
  - (b) Trade regulations: Communication between markets regulated by restrictions on carriers, and regional monopolies of trading and marketing assigned by the king
  - (c) Resource allocation: markets on terms governed by rules of law:
    - (1) Price fixing
    - (2) Absence of competition
    - (3) Equalizing devices: taking turns in selling, etc.
Conclusions

Document Informations

Reference:
Date: December 31, 1950
KPA: 35/11 (6 times the plan of The Livelihood of Man). Above the sixth version [18-21 for a short version and 22-56 for a detailed].